Cyprus was conquered and integrated with the Ottoman empire in 1571 and remained its part until 1878 after which it came under British rule. Both the Muslim and Turkish populations and the Greek orthodox had a peaceful and harmonious existence in spite of differences in ethnicity, religion, language, culture and tradition as religious toleration was the accepted state policy within the British empire. Though there were occasional conflicts of a minor nature there was a larger economic cooperation between the two parts. The Ottoman empire was spread over a large canvas incorporating many races, faiths and was secular.

The leading power of Europe in the nineteenth century was Great Britain but with the advantage of being an island nation with all-weather ports, its interest was beyond Continental Europe. “British strategy”, according to James Joll “was dominated by the fact that she ruled India and needed to protect the routes to India and the security of India’s frontiers”. It was suspicious of Russian power and intent, and with increasing concerns about the declining Ottoman Empire dubbed as “the sick man of Europe”. Accentuated by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, Britain was compelled to consider increased safeguards for its sea routes and that led to its attention to Cyprus.

Advertisement

In 1875, in the Balkans, the Serbian and Bulgarian Christians revolted against Turkish rule and Russia declared war against Turkey in support of Slavic fellow orthodox Christians, threatening Turkey’s European possessions and even Constantinople, now Istanbul. The Benjamin Disraeli led British Conservative government considered supporting the Turks but was forced to follow a moderate policy due to formidable opposition by a liberal William Gladstone supporting Christians. In this background, the June 1878 Berlin Congress took place. Disraeli agreed to discuss the Eastern Question with Bismarck. The British demand of limiting Russian gains helped the Turks to retain Istanbul but they had to concede an independent Bulgaria.

The Austro-Hungarian Hapsburg em – p ire took control over Bosnia and Herzegovina. Turkey conceded the island of Cyprus to Britain though Gladstone suggested it should come under Greek control. But it was a proposal by a leader of the opposition rather than a serious policy. Ironically Gladstone did not attempt to reverse it after reclaiming power in 1880. The post Second World War scenario of the decolonization process reflected in Cyprus as in many others the problem for a disputed solution between the Greeks and the Turks. The island was granted independence in 1960 in an unsettled situation leading to a civil war in 1963 between an overwhelming Greek majority of 80 percent and a Turkish minority of 20 per cent. An uneasy peace was restored in March 1964 with the arrival and stationing of 3,000 UN peace-keeping forces. But this step proved ineffective and in 1974, the Greek Cypriots tried to unite the island with Greece which was under the rule of a military junta and which aided and supported it.

The Turkish retaliation was immediate with direct intervention of the Turkish army which seized the northern section of the island. All the Greek settlers were expelled. The Turks in the Greek areas faced the same fate. Ever since, the de facto partition continued, though Turkish Cyprus lives in total isolation being recognized only by Turkey. The British Labour Government (1945-51) which spearheaded Indian independence considered the same for Cyprus. But the major problem was the existence of a mixed population. The Greek Cypriots wanted unity with Greece which was unacceptable to the Turkish minority. But the subsequent Conservative government led by Winston Churchill wanted to dilute the demand for self-determination.

This led to massive resentment and protests which the British troops suppressed. The successor of Churchill, Anthony Eden mov – ed away from Cyprian independence as the island was indispensable for protecting British interests in the Middle East (West Asia) and North Africa using it as a permanent military base. This infuriated the Cypriots as the Greeks were willing to permit the continued use of the island for military purposes by Britain. The Greeks Cypriots led by Archbishop Makarios (1913-77) formed a secret terrorist organization to free Cyprus. Many freedom fighters were tortured and killed and Makarios deported. Further complications developed in 1958 when the Turkish Cypriots set up a rival organization for the division of the island. To avoid further complications and a civil war, Harold Macmillan who succeeded Eden negotiated a settlement with Makarios. The agreement stipulated

(1) Cyprus will be an independent nation and will not become part of Greece and

(2) Britain will guarantee its independence by maintaining two military bases. Turkey and Greece were additional guarantors. Turkish interests would be protected as well. It was supposed to be a satisfactory solution with a Greek president and a Turkish vice president. But the arrangement collapsed and a civil war broke out between the Greeks and Turks in 1963 leading ultimately to the establishment of a separate Turkish enclave. Ever since many peace and reunification attempts were made by the UN including a federation but nothing has succeeded till now. In the initial years, a workable power sharing arrangement seemed to be achievable but Makarios scuttled all such moves expecting with his majoritarian support to extract major concessions for the Greeks.

He did not seem to imbibe the Gandhian approach of beauty of compromise. What aggravated the problem was that in 1974 the Greek military led by Dimitrios Ioannidis wanted to remove Makarios from power, integrate the island with Greece and negotiate with a weak Turkey which would be forced to cease control of the island. He expected, like Eden in the 1956 Suez Crisis, support from the US which did not happen. The rise of the USA as a world power made it more cautious as it avoided brinkmanship both in the Suez Crisis and Cyprus spoiling the British game in Suez and that of Greece in Cyprus. Turkey intervened as it did in 1964 and 1967 and the partition took place which continues till date. A solution to the problem is unlikely in the near future. Partitions are normally never annulled except in the case of Germany, which was an exception being a symbol of the Cold War.

Recent efforts in 2004 and 2017 of a bi-zo – nal and bi-communal federation failed and there is no other sign of an international mediation process. This year the UN initiated another mediation process, the fate of which is unknown. Cyprus is an interesting case as it is difficult to solve the problem but relatively easy to maintain as there are no restrictions of movement of people between the two sides. The buffer zone can be crossed easily. Pedestrian crossing is like crossing an intersection, though vehicles take a longer time. It is a win-win situation for either side; the Turkish side people work in the richer South and freely buy international brands denied in the Turkish sector.

The Greek Cypriots visit the Turkish side to buy cheaper petrol, common on the US-Mexico border and make use of cheaper medical and other services. The situation was described as ‘comfortable conflict’ by two academics, Constantinos Adamides of the University of Nicosia and Costas Constantinou of the University of Cyprus in 2012. The border is peaceful with no conflict in this century. The Greek South is a member of the EU which enables many Turkish Cypriots to obtain a passport enabling them to be a part of the EU. The eligibility depends on birth before the partition and a large number has taken advantage of this offer. The most important outcome is the astonishing fact that the need for re-unification is felt only by a few as the present arrangement is mutually advantageous.

The status quo is favoured as the Greeks have a per capita income twice that of the Turkish and are sceptical of a new power sharing arrangement and a possible federation as unworkable with failures of such initiatives in the past. This provides an example to emulate other post-colonial countries which have seen bloodshed and mutual suspicion for decades. Managed conflict is better than a solution which would be worse than the present conflict situation. As the Cold War never became hot in Europe, Cyprus has become a living example of a peaceful frozen conflict

(The writer is a retired Professor of Political Science, University of Delhi)