Recent snapshots of our living earth relayed by satellites above have undoubtedly been among the most dramatic images ever encountered by humans. Earlier images, in comparison, would have much smaller areas of barren rocks and urban sprawl; much more extensive tree cover. The natural world is continuously being replaced by a world of artefacts. However, for a fuller appreciation of the consequences of the transformation made by humans, the modern bird’s-eye view of the satellite might be supplemented by a more traditional worm’s–eye view of life on the ground. If the bird’s–eye view reveals a picture of considerable ecological change, the worm’s–eye view conveys an ecological crisis.

Raymond F. Dasmann, an American biologist and environmental conservationist, believed that human societies have evolved from ‘Ecological People’ who are deeply connected to and dependent on the natural environment for their livelihoods, culture, and way of life. They have a profound understanding of the ecosystem and live in harmony with nature, relying on it for food and water, shelter, medicines, and even for spiritual and cultural practices as well. Such people are found in various parts of the world, including villages, indigenous communities, coastal communities and forest dwelling communities. As the natural world recedes owing to relentless consumption, the capacities of local ecosystems for providing natural resources to ecological people gets reduced. Over-consumption of natural resources has also caused a litany of severe ecological problems plaguing the world today.

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These include: climate change, rising of sea levels, destruction of the ozone layer, extinction of species, loss of genetic diversity, tropical deforestation, soil erosion, drought, desertification, pollution of coastal water and estuaries etc. The crisis of the earth is not a crisis of nature but the crisis of society. Ecological people can no longer gain secure livelihoods in their homelands because of drought, desertification, deforestation and other environmental problems, together with the associated problems of population pressures and abject poverty. In their desperation, these people feel they have no alternative but to seek sanctuary elsewhere, however hazardous the attempt.

Not all of them have fled their countries, many being internally displaced. But all have abandoned their homelands on a semi-permanent if not permanent basis, with little hope of return. Thus owing to the spiralling environmental degradation, the ‘Ecological People’ of Raymond F. Dasmann have been becoming ‘Environmental Displaced Persons (EDP).’ In 1976, Lester Brown first introduced the term ‘Environmental Refugees’. In 1985, Essam El-Hinnawi used the term and described these refugees as people who were compelled to depart, either permanently or temporarily, from their native lands due to environmental disasters which not only put their lives at risk but also degraded their quality of life.

Various terms, like ‘climate refugee’, ‘climate migr ant’ and ‘environmental migrant’ have been coined to refer to the people displaced by climate-induced disasters. They are migrants do not fit into the conventional refugee status, leading to considerable debate regarding their status. In international discourse, there is also a differentiation between the treatment of migrants and refugees on account of the varying obligations that they put on destination countries. The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) has pointed out how the term ‘refugee’ needs to have an expanding definition since these environmental migrants do not get recognised as refugees in the conventional sense which makes their relocation and habitation difficult.

Climate change affects every region differently based on several factors ranging from low adaptability to geographical features like low-lying terrains. The effect of climate change and the rise in global temperature leading to the rise in sea levels will be experienced all over the world. Regions having low-lying areas are particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels. In this contest, migration will, eventually, become an adaptation strategy in the face of climate change impacts. The affected regions will also witness substantial movement of the population as a response to environmental disasters. The marginalised and the poor sections of the population will face greater risks due to low resources at their disposal.

Here are some countries having significant numbers of climate refugees and vulnerabilities that they are facing due to environmental degradations: Bangladesh, due to sea-level rise, cyclones, and flood; Somalia, facing severe droughts and famines; Nepal, vulnerable to melting glaciers, landslides, and floods; Tuvalu, at risk of disappearing owing to sea-level rise; South Sudan, experiencing droughts, floods, and food insecurity; Kiribati, threatened by sea level rise and salt water intrusion; Kenya, affected by droughts, floods, and landslides; Maldives, facing sea-level rise and coral bleaching; Honduras, prone to hurricanes, floods and landslides, and Myanmar, vulnerable to cyclones, floods, and droughts.

Of course, these countries are not the only ones affected, but they are among the most vulnerable to climate–related displacement. India is highly vulnerable because of the following obvious reasons:

1. Geography: Diverse landscapes from coastal areas to Himalayan mountains making it prone to various climate-related hazards.

2. Population density: High population density, especially in coastal cities and low-lying areas, increases exposure to climate risks.

3. Agricultural dependencies: Agriculture is a significant contributor to India’s economy, and climate change impacts agricultural productivity and food security. Shifts in monsoon timing, intensity and duration adversely affect agriculture.

4.Water scarcity: Changes in precipitation patterns and increased evaporation due to warmer temperatures exacerbate water scarcity. Increased frequency and severity of heat-waves is witnessed in northern and western regions. Southern and western regions of the country also suffer from growing water scarcity and droughts. Himalayan glaciers are melting at an alarming rate, affecting water availability.

5. Coastal vulnerability: India has a vast and diverse coast along the Indian Ocean, stretching over 7,517 kilometres. The coastline borders nine of India’s states: Gu – jarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal. The coastline is exposed to sea level rise, erosion, and increased cyclone intensity.

6. Urbanisation: Rapid urbanisation increases the risk of heatwaves, flooding and urban-climate related hazards. Climate change-induced extreme events in the Sundarbans deserve special mention. The delta region is characterised by intense, recurrent and sudden-onset disasters, as well as slow-onset ecological degradation making areas uninhabitable.

Rising sea-levels, erratic rainfall, increased frequency of cyclones, tidal surges and floods means that million of people across the Sundarbans are unable to work for most of the year. In the last two decades, tropical cyclones such as Sidr in November 2007, Aila in May 2009, Fani in May 2019, Bulbul in November 2019, Amphan in May 2020, Yaas in May 2021 and Sitrang in October 2022 wrought havoc, impacting lives and livelihoods of coastal communities in both the Indian and Bangladesh Sundarbans.

People displaced and migrating from coastal rural areas with no resources, skill or social networks at their destination are targeted by agents and /or traffickers in Dhaka or Kolkata.

(The writer is a retired IAS officer)